What Is a Snack, Why Do We Snack, and How Can We Choose Better Snacks? A Review of the Definitions of Snacking, Motivations to Snack, Contributions to Dietary Intake, and Recommendations for Improvement

Overview

Journal Adv Nutr

Publisher Elsevier

Specialty Nutritional Sciences

Date 2016 May 18

PMID 27184274

Citations 95

Authors

Julie M Hess

Satya S Jonnalagadda

Joanne L Slavin

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

Around the world, adults consume energy outside of traditional meals such as breakfast, lunch, and dinner. However, because there is no consistent definition of a "snack," it is unclear whether those extra eating occasions represent additional meals or snacks. The manner in which an eating occasion is labeled (e.g., as a meal or a snack) may influence other food choices an individual makes on the same day and satiety after consumption. Therefore, a clear distinction between "meals" and "snacks" is important. This review aims to assess the definition of extra eating occasions, to understand why eating is initiated at these occasions, and to determine what food choices are common at these eating occasions in order to identify areas for dietary intervention and improvement. Part I of this review discusses how snacking is defined and the social, environmental, and individual influences on the desire to snack and choice of snack. The section concludes with a brief discussion of the associations of snacking with cardiometabolic health markers, especially lipid profiles and weight. Part II addresses popular snack choices, overall snacking frequencies, and the demographic characteristics of frequent snackers in several different countries. This review concludes with a recommendation for nutrition policymakers to encourage specific health-promoting snacks that address nutrient insufficiencies and excesses.

Citing Articles

Exploring motivation, goals, facilitators, and barriers to adopt health behaviors at retirement age: a focus group study.

Collazo-Castineira P, Rodriguez-Rey R, Delfino G, Cruz-Jentoft A, Topinkova E, Weijs P BMC Public Health. 2025; 25(1):348.

PMID: 39875946 PMC: 11773797. DOI: 10.1186/s12889-025-21377-4.

The Risks and Consequences of Skipping Meals for Low-income Mothers.

Martin M, Courtney M, Lippert A Popul Res Policy Rev. 2025; 41(6):2613-2644.

PMID: 39749138 PMC: 11694716. DOI: 10.1007/s11113-022-09743-1.

Effects of extrusion process conditions on nutritional, anti-nutritional, physical, functional, and sensory properties of extruded snack: A review.

Ali I, Forsido S, Kuyu C, Ahmed E, Andersa K, Chane K Food Sci Nutr. 2024; 12(11):8755-8761.

PMID: 39620018 PMC: 11606806. DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.4472.

Sugar Composition of Thai Desserts and Their Impact on the Gut Microbiome in Healthy Volunteers: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Senaprom S, Namjud N, Ondee T, Bumrungpert A, Pongpirul K Nutrients. 2024; 16(22).

PMID: 39599719 PMC: 11597037. DOI: 10.3390/nu16223933.

Comparative Analysis of Dietary Habits and Obesity Prediction: Body Mass Index versus Body Fat Percentage Classification Using Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis.

Pescari D, Mihuta M, Bena A, Stoian D Nutrients. 2024; 16(19).

PMID: 39408258 PMC: 11479188. DOI: 10.3390/nu16193291.

References

Ng S, Zaghloul S, Ali H, Harrison G, Yeatts K, El Sadig M . Nutrition transition in the United Arab Emirates. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2011; 65(12):1328-37. PMC: 3304306. DOI: 10.1038/ejcn.2011.135. View

Prinsen S, de Ridder D, de Vet E . Eating by example. Effects of environmental cues on dietary decisions. Appetite. 2013; 70:1-5. DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2013.05.023. View

Bellisle F . Meals and snacking, diet quality and energy balance. Physiol Behav. 2014; 134:38-43. DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.03.010. View

Duffey K, Popkin B . Energy density, portion size, and eating occasions: contributions to increased energy intake in the United States, 1977-2006. PLoS Med. 2011; 8(6):e1001050. PMC: 3125292. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001050. View

Kerver J, Yang E, Obayashi S, Bianchi L, Song W . Meal and snack patterns are associated with dietary intake of energy and nutrients in US adults. J Am Diet Assoc. 2006; 106(1):46-53. DOI: 10.1016/j.jada.2005.09.045. View

Zizza C . Healthy snacking recommendations: one size does not fit all. Physiol Behav. 2014; 134:32-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.01.034. View

Hampl J, Heaton C, Taylor C . Snacking patterns influence energy and nutrient intakes but not body mass index. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2003; 16(1):3-11. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-277x.2003.00417.x. View

Ovaskainen M, Reinivuo H, Tapanainen H, Hannila M, Korhonen T, Pakkala H . Snacks as an element of energy intake and food consumption. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005; 60(4):494-501. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602343. View

Kant A, Graubard B . 40-year trends in meal and snack eating behaviors of American adults. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2014; 115(1):50-63. PMC: 4276433. DOI: 10.1016/j.jand.2014.06.354. View

10.

Garriguet D . Canadians' eating habits. Health Rep. 2007; 18(2):17-32. View

11.

Popkin B, Duffey K . Does hunger and satiety drive eating anymore? Increasing eating occasions and decreasing time between eating occasions in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010; 91(5):1342-7. PMC: 2854907. DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28962. View

12.

Zizza C, Duffy P, Gerrior S . Food insecurity is not associated with lower energy intakes. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2008; 16(8):1908-13. DOI: 10.1038/oby.2008.288. View

13.

Caamano M, Gutierrez J, Garcia O, Ronquillo D, Martinez G, Rosado J . Increased calorie intake at a specific mid-morning meal and increased intake of soft drinks are strongly associated with obesity in Mexican rural women. Ecol Food Nutr. 2014; 54(2):157-74. DOI: 10.1080/03670244.2014.963573. View

14.

Duffey K, Rivera J, Popkin B . Snacking is prevalent in Mexico. J Nutr. 2014; 144(11):1843-9. PMC: 4195421. DOI: 10.3945/jn.114.198192. View

15.

Kerr M, McCrorie T, Rennie K, Wallace J, Livingstone M . Snacking patterns according to location among Northern Ireland children. Int J Pediatr Obes. 2009; 5(3):243-9. DOI: 10.3109/17477160903271963. View

16.

Ovaskainen M, Tapanainen H, Pakkala H . Changes in the contribution of snacks to the daily energy intake of Finnish adults. Appetite. 2010; 54(3):623-6. DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2010.03.012. View

17.

Myhre J, Loken E, Wandel M, Andersen L . The contribution of snacks to dietary intake and their association with eating location among Norwegian adults - results from a cross-sectional dietary survey. BMC Public Health. 2015; 15:369. PMC: 4409996. DOI: 10.1186/s12889-015-1712-7. View

18.

Verhoeven A, Adriaanse M, de Vet E, Fennis B, de Ridder D . It's my party and I eat if I want to. Reasons for unhealthy snacking. Appetite. 2014; 84:20-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.09.013. View

19.

OConnor L, Brage S, Griffin S, Wareham N, Forouhi N . The cross-sectional association between snacking behaviour and measures of adiposity: the Fenland Study, UK. Br J Nutr. 2015; 114(8):1286-93. PMC: 4594050. DOI: 10.1017/S000711451500269X. View

20.

Forslund H, Lindroos A, Sjostrom L, Lissner L . Meal patterns and obesity in Swedish women-a simple instrument describing usual meal types, frequency and temporal distribution. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2002; 56(8):740-7. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601387. View