Spatial-Temporal Variations in Parasitological Prevalence and Host-Related Risk Factors of Camel Trypanosomiasis and Its Vectors in North Eastern Kenya: A Repeated Cross-Sectional Study

Camel trypanosomiasis () is endemic in the Horn of Africa. Understanding the spatiotemporal variations in prevalence, vector dynamics, and host-related risk factors is important in developing effective control strategies. A repeated cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the parasitological prevalence, livestock reservoirs, vector density/diversity, and host-related risk factors in Kenya. Random samples of 847, 1079, and 824 camels were screened at the start of the dry season, peak dry season, and during the rainy season, respectively. Blood samples were examined using the dark ground/phase contrast buffy-coat technique, and species were identified based on their movement and morphology in wet and stained thin smears. Reservoir status for was assessed in 406 cattle and 372 goats. A rainy and dry seasons entomological surveys were conducted to determine the vector abundance/diversity and spatiotemporal density changes. prevalence was 7.1%, 3.4%, and 4.1% at the start of the dry season, peak dry season, and rainy season, respectively. Camel co-infections by or ) and were recorded. Spatial variations in prevalence were recorded at the beginning of dry ( = 110.9, ≤ 0.001), peak dry ( = 42.2, ≤ 0.001), and rainy ( = 29.1, ≤ 0.001) seasons. The screened cattle and goats tested negative for or ), while two cattle tested positive for . Biting fly catches were composed of a single species from , , , and genera. The total catches for , , and were higher in the rainy than dry season consistent with the prevalence results. remains an important camel disease in the region with its prevalence varying in space and time. Camel co-infections by or ) and necessitate proper diagnosis of suspected cases and targeted therapy.