(9S,13R)-12-oxo-phytodienoic Acid Attenuates Inflammation by Inhibiting MPGES-1 and Modulating Macrophage Polarization Via NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 Pathways

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) relieve inflammation by suppressing prostaglandin E/cyclooxygenase 2 (PGE/COX-2) with cardiovascular and gastrointestinal bleeding risk. Theoretically, suppressing PGE through inhibiting the terminal synthase microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1) instead of upstream COX-2 is ideal for inflammation. Here, (9S,13R)-12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (AA-24) extracted from Artemisia anomala was first screened as an anti-inflammatory candidate and decreased inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitric oxide (NO), mPGES-1, and PGE without affecting COX-1/2, thromboxane A (TXA) and prostaglandin I (PGI). Besides, AA-24 suppressed the differentiation of M0 macrophages to M1 phenotype but enhanced it to M2 phenotype, blocked the activation of NF-κB pathway, and increased the activation of Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Moreover, AA-24 selectively inhibited mPGES-1 and reduced inflamed paw edema in carrageenan-induced mice. In conclusion, AA-24 attenuates inflammation by inhibiting mPGES-1 and modulating macrophage polarization via the NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 pathways and could be a promising candidate for developing anti-inflammatory drugs.