Biomarkers of Post-COVID Depression

Overview

Journal J Clin Med

Specialty General Medicine

Date 2021 Sep 28

PMID 34575258

Citations 44

Authors

Piotr Lorkiewicz

Napoleon Waszkiewicz

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic is spreading around the world and 187 million people have already been affected. One of its after-effects is post-COVID depression, which, according to the latest data, affects up to 40% of people who have had SARS-CoV-2 infection. A very important issue for the mental health of the general population is to look for the causes of this complication and its biomarkers. This will help in faster diagnosis and effective treatment of the affected patients. In our work, we focused on the search for major depressive disorder (MDD) biomarkers, which are also present in COVID-19 patients and may influence the development of post-COVID depression. For this purpose, we searched PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar scientific literature databases using keywords such as 'COVID-19', 'SARS-CoV-2', 'depression', 'post-COVID', 'biomarkers' and others. Among the biomarkers found, the most important that were frequently described are increased levels of interleukin 6 (IL-6), soluble interleukin 6 receptor (sIL-6R), interleukin 1 β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin 10 (IL-10), interleukin 2 (IL-2), soluble interleukin 2 receptor (sIL-2R), C-reactive protein (CRP), Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1), serum amyloid a (SAA1) and metabolites of the kynurenine pathway, as well as decreased brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tryptophan (TRP). The biomarkers identified by us indicate the etiopathogenesis of post-COVID depression analogous to the leading inflammatory hypothesis of MDD.

Citing Articles

Changes in Concentration of Selected Biomarkers of Exposure in Users of Classic Cigarettes, E-Cigarettes, and Heated Tobacco Products-A Narrative Review.

Sniadach J, Kicman A, Michalska-Falkowska A, Jonczyk K, Waszkiewicz N Int J Mol Sci. 2025; 26(5).

PMID: 40076424 PMC: 11898610. DOI: 10.3390/ijms26051796.

Interaction of HERVs with PAMPs in Dysregulation of Immune Response Cascade Upon SARS-CoV-2 Infections.

Turcic M, Kraljevic Pavelic S, Trivanovic D, Pavelic K Int J Mol Sci. 2025; 25(24.

PMID: 39769125 PMC: 11677760. DOI: 10.3390/ijms252413360.

L mitigates bisphenol A-induced ovarian dysfunction and inflammation in Wistar rats: biochemical, histopathological, pharmacokinetic, and in silico studies.

Allagui I, Sdayria J, Athmouni K, Zammel N, Guesmi F, Saoudi M 3 Biotech. 2024; 15(1):21.

PMID: 39720094 PMC: 11663833. DOI: 10.1007/s13205-024-04169-2.

Nerve Growth Factor and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in COVID-19.

Petrella C, Ferraguti G, Tarani L, Tarani F, Messina M, Fiore M Biology (Basel). 2024; 13(11).

PMID: 39596862 PMC: 11591877. DOI: 10.3390/biology13110907.

Inflammation and depression: A study protocol to dissect pathogenetic mechanisms in the onset, comorbidity and treatment response.

Scassellati C, Cattane N, Benedetti F, Borsello T, Cicala G, Gennarelli M Brain Behav Immun Health. 2024; 42:100886.

PMID: 39583163 PMC: 11582470. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2024.100886.

References

Hou H, Zhang B, Huang H, Luo Y, Wu S, Tang G . Using IL-2R/lymphocytes for predicting the clinical progression of patients with COVID-19. Clin Exp Immunol. 2020; 201(1):76-84. PMC: 7267633. DOI: 10.1111/cei.13450. View

Iacob E, Light K, Tadler S, Weeks H, White A, Hughen R . Dysregulation of leukocyte gene expression in women with medication-refractory depression versus healthy non-depressed controls. BMC Psychiatry. 2013; 13:273. PMC: 4015603. DOI: 10.1186/1471-244X-13-273. View

Fraser D, Slessarev M, Martin C, Daley M, Patel M, Miller M . Metabolomics Profiling of Critically Ill Coronavirus Disease 2019 Patients: Identification of Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers. Crit Care Explor. 2020; 2(10):e0272. PMC: 7587450. DOI: 10.1097/CCE.0000000000000272. View

Chen G, Wu D, Guo W, Cao Y, Huang D, Wang H . Clinical and immunological features of severe and moderate coronavirus disease 2019. J Clin Invest. 2020; 130(5):2620-2629. PMC: 7190990. DOI: 10.1172/JCI137244. View

Colle R, Masson P, Verstuyft C, Feve B, Werner E, Boursier-Neyret C . Peripheral tryptophan, serotonin, kynurenine, and their metabolites in major depression: A case-control study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2019; 74(2):112-117. DOI: 10.1111/pcn.12944. View

Fraser D, Cepinskas G, Slessarev M, Martin C, Daley M, Miller M . Inflammation Profiling of Critically Ill Coronavirus Disease 2019 Patients. Crit Care Explor. 2020; 2(6):e0144. PMC: 7314329. DOI: 10.1097/CCE.0000000000000144. View

Friedlander R, Gagliardini V, Rotello R, Yuan J . Functional role of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 beta) in IL-1 beta-converting enzyme-mediated apoptosis. J Exp Med. 1996; 184(2):717-24. PMC: 2192702. DOI: 10.1084/jem.184.2.717. View

Chocano-Bedoya P, Mirzaei F, OReilly E, Lucas M, Okereke O, Hu F . C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, soluble tumor necrosis factor α receptor 2 and incident clinical depression. J Affect Disord. 2014; 163:25-32. PMC: 4029945. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.03.023. View

Nestler E, Barrot M, DiLeone R, Eisch A, Gold S, Monteggia L . Neurobiology of depression. Neuron. 2002; 34(1):13-25. DOI: 10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00653-0. View

10.

Dunn A, Swiergiel A, de Beaurepaire R . Cytokines as mediators of depression: what can we learn from animal studies?. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2005; 29(4-5):891-909. DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.03.023. View

11.

Pinsky M, Vincent J, Deviere J, Alegre M, KAHN R, Dupont E . Serum cytokine levels in human septic shock. Relation to multiple-system organ failure and mortality. Chest. 1993; 103(2):565-75. DOI: 10.1378/chest.103.2.565. View

12.

Aydemir O, Deveci A, Taneli F . The effect of chronic antidepressant treatment on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in depressed patients: a preliminary study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 29(2):261-5. DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2004.11.009. View

13.

Badawy A, Guillemin G . The Plasma [Kynurenine]/[Tryptophan] Ratio and Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase: Time for Appraisal. Int J Tryptophan Res. 2019; 12:1178646919868978. PMC: 6710706. DOI: 10.1177/1178646919868978. View

14.

Smith K, Renshaw P, Bilello J . The diagnosis of depression: current and emerging methods. Compr Psychiatry. 2012; 54(1):1-6. PMC: 5502713. DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.06.006. View

15.

Liu Q, Dai Y, Feng M, Wang X, Liang W, Yang F . Associations between serum amyloid A, interleukin-6, and COVID-19: A cross-sectional study. J Clin Lab Anal. 2020; 34(10):e23527. PMC: 7595904. DOI: 10.1002/jcla.23527. View

16.

Ogyu K, Kubo K, Noda Y, Iwata Y, Tsugawa S, Omura Y . Kynurenine pathway in depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2018; 90:16-25. DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.023. View

17.

Horn S, Long M, Nelson B, Allen N, Fisher P, Byrne M . Replication and reproducibility issues in the relationship between C-reactive protein and depression: A systematic review and focused meta-analysis. Brain Behav Immun. 2018; 73:85-114. PMC: 6800199. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2018.06.016. View

18.

Leighton S, Nerurkar L, Krishnadas R, Johnman C, Graham G, Cavanagh J . Chemokines in depression in health and in inflammatory illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry. 2017; 23(1):48-58. PMC: 5754468. DOI: 10.1038/mp.2017.205. View

19.

Saraiva M, OGarra A . The regulation of IL-10 production by immune cells. Nat Rev Immunol. 2010; 10(3):170-81. DOI: 10.1038/nri2711. View

20.

Heinrich P, Castell J, Andus T . Interleukin-6 and the acute phase response. Biochem J. 1990; 265(3):621-36. PMC: 1133681. DOI: 10.1042/bj2650621. View