Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Prime a Specific Activation State of Macrophages

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO NPs) are widely used in foods, cosmetics, and medicine. Although the inhalation toxicity of TiO NPs has been studied, the potential adverse effects of oral exposure of low-dose TiO NPs are largely unclear. Herein, with macrophage cell lines, primary cells, and mouse models, we show that TiO NPs prime macrophages into a specific activation state characterized by excessive inflammation and suppressed innate immune function. After a month of dietary exposure in mice or exposure in vitro to TiO NPs (10 and 50 nm), the expressions of pro-inflammatory genes in macrophages were increased, and the expressions of anti-inflammatory genes were decreased. In addition, for macrophages exposed to TiO NPs in vitro and in vivo, their chemotactic, phagocytic, and bactericidal activities were lower. This imbalance in the immune system could enhance the susceptibility to infections. In mice, after a month of dietary exposure to low doses of TiO NPs, an aggravated septic shock occurred in response to lipopolysaccharide challenge, leading to elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines in serum and reduced overall survival. Moreover, TLR4-deficient mice and primary macrophages, or TLR4-independent stimuli, showed less response to TiO NPs. These results demonstrate that TiO NPs induce an abnormal state of macrophages characterized by excessive inflammation and suppressed innate immune function in a TLR4-dependent manner, which may suggest a potential health risk, particularly for those with additional complications, such as bacterial infections.