The Three Modern Faces of Mercury

Overview

Journal Environ Health Perspect

Date 2002 Feb 9

PMID 11834460

Citations 181

Authors

Thomas W Clarkson

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

The three modern "faces" of mercury are our perceptions of risk from the exposure of billions of people to methyl mercury in fish, mercury vapor from amalgam tooth fillings, and ethyl mercury in the form of thimerosal added as an antiseptic to widely used vaccines. In this article I review human exposure to and the toxicology of each of these three species of mercury. Mechanisms of action are discussed where possible. Key gaps in our current knowledge are identified from the points of view both of risk assessment and of mechanisms of action.

Citing Articles

Recent advances in the clinical management of intoxication by five heavy metals: Mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium and arsenic.

Balali-Mood M, Eizadi-Mood N, Hassanian-Moghaddam H, Etemad L, Moshiri M, Vahabzadeh M Heliyon. 2025; 11(4):e42696.

PMID: 40040983 PMC: 11876891. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e42696.

Associations of Prenatal Mercury Exposure and PUFA with Telomere Length and mtDNA Copy Number in 7-Year-Old Children in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Cohort 2.

Stajnko A, Pineda D, Klus J, Love T, Thurston S, Mulhern M Environ Health Perspect. 2025; 133(2):27002.

PMID: 39903555 PMC: 11793161. DOI: 10.1289/EHP14776.

Risks to Human Health from Mercury in Gold Mining in the Coastal Region of Ecuador.

Mestanza-Ramon C, Jimenez-Oyola S, Cedeno-Laje J, Villamar Marazita K, Gavilanes Montoya A, Castillo Vizuete D Toxics. 2024; 12(5).

PMID: 38787102 PMC: 11125909. DOI: 10.3390/toxics12050323.

Dietary intake of methylmercury by 0-5 years children using the duplicate diet method in Japan.

Tatsuta N, Asato K, Iwai-Shimada M, Iwai K, Nakayama S, Yamazaki S Environ Health Prev Med. 2024; 29:27.

PMID: 38735736 PMC: 11111292. DOI: 10.1265/ehpm.24-00048.

What does scientometry tell us about mercury toxicology and its biological impairments?.

Baia-da-Silva D, Mendes P, Silva D, Chemelo V, Bittencourt L, Padilha P Heliyon. 2024; 10(7):e27526.

PMID: 38586377 PMC: 10998116. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27526.

References

Bakir F, DAMLUJI S, Murtadha M, Khalidi A, Tikriti S, Dahahir H . Methylmercury poisoning in Iraq. Science. 1973; 181(4096):230-41. DOI: 10.1126/science.181.4096.230. View

Albers J, Kallenbach L, Fine L, Langolf G, Wolfe R, Donofrio P . Neurological abnormalities associated with remote occupational elemental mercury exposure. Ann Neurol. 1988; 24(5):651-9. DOI: 10.1002/ana.410240510. View

Charleston J, Body R, Bolender R, MOTTET N, Vahter M, Burbacher T . Changes in the number of astrocytes and microglia in the thalamus of the monkey Macaca fascicularis following long-term subclinical methylmercury exposure. Neurotoxicology. 1996; 17(1):127-38. View

Nierenberg D, Nordgren R, Chang M, Siegler R, Blayney M, Hochberg F . Delayed cerebellar disease and death after accidental exposure to dimethylmercury. N Engl J Med. 1998; 338(23):1672-6. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199806043382305. View

Blair AMJN , Clark B, Clarke A, Wood P . Tissue concentrations of mercury after chronic dosing of squirrel monkeys with thiomersal. Toxicology. 1975; 3(2):171-6. DOI: 10.1016/0300-483x(75)90082-7. View

Taylor S, Chivers I, Price R, Milligan P, Francini I, Alinovi R . The assessment of biomarkers to detect nephrotoxicity using an integrated database. Environ Res. 1997; 75(1):23-33. DOI: 10.1006/enrs.1997.3775. View

Fung Y, Meade A, Rack E, Blotcky A . Brain mercury in neurodegenerative disorders. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1997; 35(1):49-54. DOI: 10.3109/15563659709001165. View

Fitzgerald W, Clarkson T . Mercury and monomethylmercury: present and future concerns. Environ Health Perspect. 1991; 96:159-66. PMC: 1568233. DOI: 10.1289/ehp.9196159. View

Westphal G, Schnuch A, Schulz T, Reich K, Aberer W, Brasch J . Homozygous gene deletions of the glutathione S-transferases M1 and T1 are associated with thimerosal sensitization. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2000; 73(6):384-8. DOI: 10.1007/s004200000159. View

10.

Tan M, Parkin J . Route of decomposition of thiomersal (thimerosal). Int J Pharm. 2000; 208(1-2):23-34. DOI: 10.1016/s0378-5173(00)00514-7. View

11.

Miura K, Clarkson T . Reduced methylmercury accumulation in a methylmercury-resistant rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cell line. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1993; 118(1):39-45. DOI: 10.1006/taap.1993.1006. View

12.

Black J . The puzzle of pink disease. J R Soc Med. 2000; 92(9):478-81. PMC: 1297367. DOI: 10.1177/014107689909200918. View

13.

Clarkson T, Magos L, Cox C, Greenwood M, Majeed M . Tests of efficacy of antidotes for removal of methylmercury in human poisoning during the Iraq outbreak. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1981; 218(1):74-83. View

14.

Cornett C, Ehmann W, Wekstein D, Markesbery W . Trace elements in Alzheimer's disease pituitary glands. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1998; 62(1-2):107-14. DOI: 10.1007/BF02820026. View

15.

Ballatori N, Clarkson T . Biliary secretion of glutathione and of glutathione-metal complexes. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1985; 5(5):816-31. DOI: 10.1016/0272-0590(85)90165-4. View

16.

Jacobs J, Carmichael N, CAVANAGH J . Ultrastructural changes in the nervous system of rabbits poisoned with methyl mercury. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1977; 39(2):249-61. DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(77)90158-2. View

17.

Drasch G, Bose-OReilly S, Beinhoff C, Roider G, Maydl S . The Mt. Diwata study on the Philippines 1999--assessing mercury intoxication of the population by small scale gold mining. Sci Total Environ. 2001; 267(1-3):151-68. DOI: 10.1016/s0048-9697(00)00806-8. View

18.

SAXE S, Wekstein M, Kryscio R, Henry R, Cornett C, Snowdon D . Alzheimer's disease, dental amalgam and mercury. J Am Dent Assoc. 1999; 130(2):191-9. DOI: 10.14219/jada.archive.1999.0168. View

19.

Matheson D, Clarkson T, Gelfand E . Mercury toxicity (acrodynia) induced by long-term injection of gammaglobulin. J Pediatr. 1980; 97(1):153-5. DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3476(80)80159-4. View

20.

Engqvist A, Colmsjo A, Skare I . Speciation of mercury excreted in feces from individuals with amalgam fillings. Arch Environ Health. 1998; 53(3):205-13. DOI: 10.1080/00039899809605697. View