The Evolution of Human Influenza Viruses

Overview

Journal Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci

Specialty Biology

Date 2002 Jan 10

PMID 11779385

Citations 191

Authors

A J Hay

V Gregory

A R Douglas

Y P Lin

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

The evolution of influenza viruses results in (i) recurrent annual epidemics of disease that are caused by progressive antigenic drift of influenza A and B viruses due to the mutability of the RNA genome and (ii) infrequent but severe pandemics caused by the emergence of novel influenza A subtypes to which the population has little immunity. The latter characteristic is a consequence of the wide antigenic diversity and peculiar host range of influenza A viruses and the ability of their segmented RNA genomes to undergo frequent genetic reassortment (recombination) during mixed infections. Contrasting features of the evolution of recently circulating influenza AH1N1, AH3N2 and B viruses include the rapid drift of AH3N2 viruses as a single lineage, the slow replacement of successive antigenic variants of AH1N1 viruses and the co-circulation over some 25 years of antigenically and genetically distinct lineages of influenza B viruses. Constant monitoring of changes in the circulating viruses is important for maintaining the efficacy of influenza vaccines in combating disease.

Citing Articles

A comparative analysis of influenza and COVID-19: Environmental-ecological impacts, socioeconomic implications, and future challenges.

Guo Y, Gu K, Garber P, Zhang R, Zhao Z, Xu L Biosaf Health. 2025; 6(6):369-375.

PMID: 40078984 PMC: 11895011. DOI: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2024.10.001.

Comparative Analysis of Influenza Epidemiology Before and After the COVID-19 Pandemic in Argentina (2018-2019 vs. 2022-2023).

Gentile A, Juarez M, Ensinck G, Lopez O, Melonari P, Fernandez T Influenza Other Respir Viruses. 2025; 19(2):e70078.

PMID: 39962921 PMC: 11832905. DOI: 10.1111/irv.70078.

Raman signatures of type A and B influenza viruses: molecular origin of the "" inactivation mechanism mediated by micrometric silicon nitride powder.

Pezzotti G, Yasukochi Y, Ohgitani E, Nakashio M, Shin-Ya M, Adachi T RSC Chem Biol. 2025; 6(2):182-208.

PMID: 39850321 PMC: 11751685. DOI: 10.1039/d4cb00237g.

Antigenic drift and subtype interference shape A(H3N2) epidemic dynamics in the United States.

Perofsky A, Huddleston J, Hansen C, Barnes J, Rowe T, Xu X Elife. 2024; 13.

PMID: 39319780 PMC: 11424097. DOI: 10.7554/eLife.91849.

Inactivated influenza virus vaccines expressing COBRA hemagglutinin elicited broadly reactive, long-lived protective antibodies.

Shi H, Zhang X, Ge P, Meliopoulos V, Freiden P, Livingston B Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2024; 20(1):2356269.

PMID: 38826029 PMC: 11152115. DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2024.2356269.

References

Gregory V, Lim W, Cameron K, Bennett M, Marozin S, Klimov A . Infection of a child in Hong Kong by an influenza A H3N2 virus closely related to viruses circulating in European pigs. J Gen Virol. 2001; 82(Pt 6):1397-1406. DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-82-6-1397. View

McCullers J, Wang G, He S, Webster R . Reassortment and insertion-deletion are strategies for the evolution of influenza B viruses in nature. J Virol. 1999; 73(9):7343-8. PMC: 104260. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.73.9.7343-7348.1999. View

Kendal A, Noble G, Skehel J, Dowdle W . Antigenic similarity of influenza A (H1N1) viruses from epidemics in 1977--1978 to "Scandinavian" strains isolated in epidemics of 1950--1951. Virology. 1978; 89(2):632-6. DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(78)90207-6. View

Young J, Palese P . Evolution of human influenza A viruses in nature: recombination contributes to genetic variation of H1N1 strains. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979; 76(12):6547-51. PMC: 411903. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.76.12.6547. View

Wiley D, Wilson I, Skehel J . Structural identification of the antibody-binding sites of Hong Kong influenza haemagglutinin and their involvement in antigenic variation. Nature. 1981; 289(5796):373-8. DOI: 10.1038/289373a0. View

Colman P, Varghese J, Laver W . Structure of the catalytic and antigenic sites in influenza virus neuraminidase. Nature. 1983; 303(5912):41-4. DOI: 10.1038/303041a0. View

Rogers G, Paulson J, Daniels R, Skehel J, Wilson I, Wiley D . Single amino acid substitutions in influenza haemagglutinin change receptor binding specificity. Nature. 1983; 304(5921):76-8. DOI: 10.1038/304076a0. View

Bush R, BENDER C, Subbarao K, Cox N, FITCH W . Predicting the evolution of human influenza A. Science. 1999; 286(5446):1921-5. DOI: 10.1126/science.286.5446.1921. View

Lin Y, Shaw M, Gregory V, Cameron K, Lim W, Klimov A . Avian-to-human transmission of H9N2 subtype influenza A viruses: relationship between H9N2 and H5N1 human isolates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000; 97(17):9654-8. PMC: 16920. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.160270697. View

10.

Skehel J, Wiley D . Receptor binding and membrane fusion in virus entry: the influenza hemagglutinin. Annu Rev Biochem. 2000; 69:531-69. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.biochem.69.1.531. View

11.

Skehel J, Stevens D, Daniels R, Douglas A, Knossow M, Wilson I . A carbohydrate side chain on hemagglutinins of Hong Kong influenza viruses inhibits recognition by a monoclonal antibody. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984; 81(6):1779-83. PMC: 345004. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.81.6.1779. View

12.

Scholtissek C, Burger H, Kistner O, Shortridge K . The nucleoprotein as a possible major factor in determining host specificity of influenza H3N2 viruses. Virology. 1985; 147(2):287-94. DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(85)90131-x. View

13.

Raymond F, Caton A, Cox N, Kendal A, Brownlee G . The antigenicity and evolution of influenza H1 haemagglutinin, from 1950-1957 and 1977-1983: two pathways from one gene. Virology. 1986; 148(2):275-87. DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(86)90325-9. View

14.

Alexander G, Brahm J, Fagan E, Smith H, Daniels H, Eddleston A . Loss of HBsAg with interferon therapy in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Lancet. 1987; 2(8550):66-9. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(87)92735-8. View

15.

Yamashita M, Krystal M, FITCH W, Palese P . Influenza B virus evolution: co-circulating lineages and comparison of evolutionary pattern with those of influenza A and C viruses. Virology. 1988; 163(1):112-22. DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(88)90238-3. View

16.

Kawaoka Y, Krauss S, Webster R . Avian-to-human transmission of the PB1 gene of influenza A viruses in the 1957 and 1968 pandemics. J Virol. 1989; 63(11):4603-8. PMC: 251093. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.63.11.4603-4608.1989. View

17.

Rota P, Wallis T, Harmon M, Rota J, Kendal A, Nerome K . Cocirculation of two distinct evolutionary lineages of influenza type B virus since 1983. Virology. 1990; 175(1):59-68. DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(90)90186-u. View

18.

Kanegae Y, Sugita S, Endo A, Ishida M, Senya S, Osako K . Evolutionary pattern of the hemagglutinin gene of influenza B viruses isolated in Japan: cocirculating lineages in the same epidemic season. J Virol. 1990; 64(6):2860-5. PMC: 249468. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.64.6.2860-2865.1990. View

19.

Guo Y, Xu X, Cox N . Human influenza A (H1N2) viruses isolated from China. J Gen Virol. 1992; 73 ( Pt 2):383-7. DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-73-2-383. View

20.

Webster R, BEAN W, Gorman O, Chambers T, Kawaoka Y . Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiol Rev. 1992; 56(1):152-79. PMC: 372859. DOI: 10.1128/mr.56.1.152-179.1992. View