Mycotoxin Exposure Through the Consumption of Processed Cereal Food for Children (< 5 years Old) from Rural Households of Oshana, a Region of Namibia

Overview

Journal Mycotoxin Res

Date 2025 Jan 14

PMID 39808410

Authors

Maria A Angula

Anthony Ishola

Muvari Tjiurutue

Michael Sulyok

Rudolf Krska

Chibundu N Ezekiel

Jane Misihairabgwi

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

Mycotoxin exposure from contaminated food is a significant global health issue, particularly among vulnerable children. Given limited data on mycotoxin exposure among Namibian children, this study investigated mycotoxin types and levels in foods, evaluated dietary mycotoxin exposure from processed cereal foods in children under age five from rural households in Oshana region, Namibia. Mycotoxins in cereal-based food samples (n = 162) (mahangu flour (n = 35), sorghum flour (n = 13), mahangu thin/thick porridge (n = 54), oshikundu (n = 56), and omungome (n = 4)) were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Aflatoxin B (AFB, 35.8%), zearalenone (27.2%), fumonisin B (FB, 24.1%), citrinin (CIT, 12.4%) and deoxynivalenol (10.5%) were the major mycotoxins quantified. Food samples (35.8% (n = 58) and 6.2% (n = 10)) exceeded the 0.1 µg/kg AFB and 200 µg/kg FB EU limit for children's food, respectively. Several emerging mycotoxins including the neurotoxic 3-nitropropionic acid, moniliformin (MON), and tenuazonic acid were quantified in over 50% of all samples. Co-occurrence of AFB, CIT, and FB detected in 4.9% (n = 8) samples, which could heighten food safety concerns. Regarding exposure assessment and risk characterization, average probable dietary intake for AFB from all ready-to-eat-foods was 0.036 µg/kg bw/day, which resulted in margin of exposures (MOE) of 11 and 0.65 risk cancer cases/year/100,000 people, indicating a risk of chronic aflatoxicosis. High tolerable daily intake values for FB, and MOE for beauvericin and MON exceeded reference values. Consumption of a diversified diet and interventions including timely planting and harvesting, best grain storage, and other standard postharvest food handling practices are needed to mitigate mycotoxin exposure through contaminated cereal foods and to safeguard the health of the rural children in Namibia.

References

Segvic Klaric M, Zeljezic D, Rumora L, Peraica M, Pepeljnjak S, Domijan A . A potential role of calcium in apoptosis and aberrant chromatin forms in porcine kidney PK15 cells induced by individual and combined ochratoxin A and citrinin. Arch Toxicol. 2011; 86(1):97-107. DOI: 10.1007/s00204-011-0735-9. View

Kimanya M, Routledge M, Mpolya E, Ezekiel C, Shirima C, Gong Y . Estimating the risk of aflatoxin-induced liver cancer in Tanzania based on biomarker data. PLoS One. 2021; 16(3):e0247281. PMC: 7951873. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0247281. View

Stadler D, Sulyok M, Schuhmacher R, Berthiller F, Krska R . The contribution of lot-to-lot variation to the measurement uncertainty of an LC-MS-based multi-mycotoxin assay. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2018; 410(18):4409-4418. PMC: 6021480. DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-1096-5. View

Shirima C, Kimanya M, Routledge M, Srey C, Kinabo J, Humpf H . A prospective study of growth and biomarkers of exposure to aflatoxin and fumonisin during early childhood in Tanzania. Environ Health Perspect. 2014; 123(2):173-8. PMC: 4314247. DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1408097. View

Ali N, Degen G . Biological monitoring for ochratoxin A and citrinin and their metabolites in urine samples of infants and children in Bangladesh. Mycotoxin Res. 2020; 36(4):409-417. DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00407-7. View

Adetunji M, Atanda O, Ezekiel C . Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins in Stored Maize Grains Consumed by Infants and Young Children in Nigeria. Children (Basel). 2017; 4(7). PMC: 5532550. DOI: 10.3390/children4070058. View

Shephard G, Marasas W, Burger H, Somdyala N, Rheeder J, van der Westhuizen L . Exposure assessment for fumonisins in the former Transkei region of South Africa. Food Addit Contam. 2007; 24(6):621-9. DOI: 10.1080/02652030601101136. View

Clarke R, Connolly L, Frizzell C, Elliott C . Cytotoxic assessment of the regulated, co-existing mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, fumonisin B1 and ochratoxin, in single, binary and tertiary mixtures. Toxicon. 2014; 90:70-81. DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.07.019. View

Ezekiel C, Sulyok M, Ogara I, Abia W, Warth B, Sarkanj B . Mycotoxins in uncooked and plate-ready household food from rural northern Nigeria. Food Chem Toxicol. 2019; 128:171-179. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.002. View

10.

Kowalska K, Habrowska-Gorczynska D, Piastowska-Ciesielska A . Zearalenone as an endocrine disruptor in humans. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2016; 48:141-149. DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2016.10.015. View

11.

Kaela C, Lilly M, Rheeder J, Misihairabgwi J, Alberts J . Mycological and Multiple Mycotoxin Surveillance of Sorghum and Pearl Millet Produced by Smallholder Farmers in Namibia. Curr Microbiol. 2023; 80(5):164. PMC: 10073170. DOI: 10.1007/s00284-023-03263-7. View

12.

Sulyok M, Stadler D, Steiner D, Krska R . Validation of an LC-MS/MS-based dilute-and-shoot approach for the quantification of > 500 mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites in food crops: challenges and solutions. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2020; 412(11):2607-2620. PMC: 7136310. DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02489-9. View

13.

Assuncao R, Vasco E, Nunes B, Loureiro S, Martins C, Alvito P . Single-compound and cumulative risk assessment of mycotoxins present in breakfast cereals consumed by children from Lisbon region, Portugal. Food Chem Toxicol. 2015; 86:274-81. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.10.017. View

14.

. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Forty-ninth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 1999; 884:i-viii, 1-96. View

15.

Nafuka S, Misihairabgwi J, Bock R, Ishola A, Sulyok M, Krska R . Variation of Fungal Metabolites in Sorghum Malts Used to Prepare Namibian Traditional Fermented Beverages and . Toxins (Basel). 2019; 11(3). PMC: 6468557. DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030165. View

16.

Wang L, Wang J, Yang L, Zhou S, Guan S, Yang L . Effect of Praeruptorin C on 3-nitropropionic acid induced Huntington's disease-like symptoms in mice. Biomed Pharmacother. 2016; 86:81-87. DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2016.11.111. View

17.

Missmer S, Suarez L, Felkner M, Wang E, Merrill Jr A, Rothman K . Exposure to fumonisins and the occurrence of neural tube defects along the Texas-Mexico border. Environ Health Perspect. 2006; 114(2):237-41. PMC: 1367837. DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8221. View

18.

Alvito P, Pereira-da-Silva L . Mycotoxin Exposure during the First 1000 Days of Life and Its Impact on Children's Health: A Clinical Overview. Toxins (Basel). 2022; 14(3). PMC: 8955462. DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030189. View

19.

Wu H, Xu Y, Gong Y, Huntriss J, Routledge M . Effects of aflatoxin and fumonisin on gene expression of growth factors and inflammation-related genes in a human hepatocyte cell line. Mutagenesis. 2024; 39(3):181-195. PMC: 11040159. DOI: 10.1093/mutage/geae005. View

20.

Awuchi C, Ondari E, Nwozo S, Odongo G, Eseoghene I, Twinomuhwezi H . Mycotoxins' Toxicological Mechanisms Involving Humans, Livestock and Their Associated Health Concerns: A Review. Toxins (Basel). 2022; 14(3). PMC: 8949390. DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030167. View