ADHD: Reviewing the Causes and Evaluating Solutions

Overview

Journal J Pers Med

Date 2021 Apr 3

PMID 33804365

Citations 19

Authors

Luis Nunez-Jaramillo

Andrea Herrera-Solis

Wendy Veronica Herrera-Morales

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder in which patients present inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. The etiology of this condition is diverse, including environmental factors and the presence of variants of some genes. However, a great diversity exists among patients regarding the presence of these ADHD-associated factors. Moreover, there are variations in the reported neurophysiological correlates of ADHD. ADHD is often treated pharmacologically, producing an improvement in symptomatology, albeit there are patients who are refractory to the main pharmacological treatments or present side effects to these drugs, highlighting the importance of developing other therapeutic options. Different non-pharmacological treatments are in this review addressed, finding diverse results regarding efficacy. Altogether, ADHD is associated with different etiologies, all of them producing changes in brain development, leading to the characteristic symptomatology of this condition. Given the heterogeneous etiology of ADHD, discussion is presented about the convenience of personalizing ADHD treatment, whether pharmacological or non-pharmacological, to reach an optimum effect in the majority of patients. Approaches to personalizing both pharmacological therapy and neurofeedback are presented.

Citing Articles

Beyond the Brain: Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and the Gut-Brain Axis.

Gandhi D, Pande D, Harikrishna A, Advilkar A, Basavan I, Ansari R Cureus. 2025; 16(12):e76291.

PMID: 39850178 PMC: 11754923. DOI: 10.7759/cureus.76291.

Neurodevelopmental Impairments in Adult Psychosomatic Patients.

Christensen N, Linden M, Muschalla B J Clin Med. 2024; 13(18).

PMID: 39337051 PMC: 11432227. DOI: 10.3390/jcm13185566.

Effectiveness of a game-based high-intensity interval training on executive function and other health indicators of children with ADHD: A three-arm partially-blinded randomized controlled trial.

Sun F, Fang Y, Ho Y, Chow G, Yang Y, Huang K J Exerc Sci Fit. 2024; 22(4):408-416.

PMID: 39309731 PMC: 11415844. DOI: 10.1016/j.jesf.2024.09.001.

Serotonergic Drugs for the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Review of Past Development, Pitfalls and Failures, and a Look to the Future.

Chepke C, Brunner E, Cutler A Psychopharmacol Bull. 2024; 54(4):45-80.

PMID: 39263202 PMC: 11385260.

Parental mental health during preconception years in association with offspring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a systematic review protocol.

Ann Johns D, Quirk S, Pasco J, Hyde N, Williams L BMJ Open. 2024; 14(8):e082958.

PMID: 39122396 PMC: 11331898. DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2023-082958.

References

Ogrim G, Kropotov J . Predicting Clinical Gains and Side Effects of Stimulant Medication in Pediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder by Combining Measures From qEEG and ERPs in a Cued GO/NOGO Task. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2018; 50(1):34-43. PMC: 6291902. DOI: 10.1177/1550059418782328. View

Faraone S, Perlis R, Doyle A, Smoller J, Goralnick J, Holmgren M . Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 57(11):1313-23. DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.024. View

Moreno-Garcia I, Meneres-Sancho S, Camacho-Vara de Rey C, Servera M . A Randomized Controlled Trial to Examine the Posttreatment Efficacy of Neurofeedback, Behavior Therapy, and Pharmacology on ADHD Measures. J Atten Disord. 2017; 23(4):374-383. DOI: 10.1177/1087054717693371. View

Acosta M . [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder beyond adolescence. Time to think different?]. Medicina (B Aires). 2018; 78 Suppl 2:57-62. View

Saute R, Dabbs K, Jones J, Jackson D, Seidenberg M, Hermann B . Brain morphology in children with epilepsy and ADHD. PLoS One. 2014; 9(4):e95269. PMC: 3997349. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095269. View

Leo D, Sukhanov I, Zoratto F, Illiano P, Caffino L, Sanna F . Pronounced Hyperactivity, Cognitive Dysfunctions, and BDNF Dysregulation in Dopamine Transporter Knock-out Rats. J Neurosci. 2018; 38(8):1959-1972. PMC: 5824739. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1931-17.2018. View

Walker J . QEEG-guided neurofeedback for recurrent migraine headaches. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2011; 42(1):59-61. DOI: 10.1177/155005941104200112. View

Bilgic A, Toker A, Isik U, Kilinc I . Serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor, glial-derived neurotrophic factor, nerve growth factor, and neurotrophin-3 levels in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016; 26(3):355-363. DOI: 10.1007/s00787-016-0898-2. View

Ehlers C, Wall T, Phillips E . Effects of age and parental history of alcoholism on EEG findings in mission Indian children and adolescents. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2001; 25(5):672-9. View

10.

Nigg J, Mark Knottnerus G, Martel M, Nikolas M, Cavanagh K, Karmaus W . Low blood lead levels associated with clinically diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and mediated by weak cognitive control. Biol Psychiatry. 2007; 63(3):325-31. PMC: 2818788. DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.07.013. View

11.

Gharami K, Das M, Das S . Essential role of docosahexaenoic acid towards development of a smarter brain. Neurochem Int. 2015; 89:51-62. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2015.08.014. View

12.

Hong J, Hwang I, Lim M, Kwon H, Jin H . Genetic associations between ADHD and dopaminergic genes (DAT1 and DRD4) VNTRs in Korean children. Genes Genomics. 2018; 40(12):1309-1317. DOI: 10.1007/s13258-018-0726-9. View

13.

Mohr Jensen C, Amdisen B, Jorgensen K, Arnfred S . Cognitive behavioural therapy for ADHD in adults: systematic review and meta-analyses. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord. 2016; 8(1):3-11. DOI: 10.1007/s12402-016-0188-3. View

14.

Storebo O, Pedersen N, Ramstad E, Kielsholm M, Nielsen S, Krogh H . Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents - assessment of adverse events in non-randomised studies. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018; 5:CD012069. PMC: 6494554. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD012069.pub2. View

15.

Hutchison S, Ghuman J, Ghuman H, Karpov I, Schuster J . Efficacy of atomoxetine in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in patients with common comorbidities in children, adolescents and adults: a review. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2016; 6(5):317-334. PMC: 5036135. DOI: 10.1177/2045125316647686. View

16.

Combita L, Voelker P, Abundis-Gutierrez A, Pozuelos J, Rueda M . Influence of the SLC6A3-DAT1 Gene on Multifaceted Measures of Self-regulation in Preschool Children. Front Psychol. 2017; 8:26. PMC: 5243803. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00026. View

17.

Wong I, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar J, Cortese S, Dopfner M, Simonoff E . Emerging challenges in pharmacotherapy research on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder-outcome measures beyond symptom control and clinical trials. Lancet Psychiatry. 2019; 6(6):528-537. DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30096-3. View

18.

Krepel N, Egtberts T, Sack A, Heinrich H, Ryan M, Arns M . A multicenter effectiveness trial of QEEG-informed neurofeedback in ADHD: Replication and treatment prediction. Neuroimage Clin. 2020; 28:102399. PMC: 7481574. DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102399. View

19.

Muratori P, Conversano C, Levantini V, Masi G, Milone A, Villani S . Exploring the Efficacy of a Mindfulness Program for Boys With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Oppositional Defiant Disorder. J Atten Disord. 2020; 25(11):1544-1553. DOI: 10.1177/1087054720915256. View

20.

Cortese S . Debate: Are Stimulant Medications for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Effective in the Long Term?. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019; 58(10):936. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2019.04.029. View