Paid Maternal Leave is Associated with Better Language and Socioemotional Outcomes During Toddlerhood

Overview

Journal Infancy

Specialties Gynecology & Obstetrics
Pediatrics

Date 2021 Mar 23

PMID 33755325

Citations 7

Authors

Karina Kozak

Ashley Greaves

Jane Waldfogel

Jyoti Angal

Amy J Elliott

William P Fifier

Natalie Hiromi Brito

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

The United States is the only high-income country that does not have a national policy mandating paid leave to working women who give birth. Increased rates of maternal employment post-birth call for greater understanding of the effects of family leave on infant development. This study examined the links between paid leave and toddler language, cognitive, and socioemotional outcomes (24-36 months; N = 328). Results indicate that paid leave was associated with better language outcomes, regardless of socioeconomic status. Additionally, paid leave was correlated with fewer infant behavior problems for mothers with lower levels of educational attainment. Expanding access to policies that support families in need, like paid family leave, may aid in reducing socioeconomic disparities in infant development.

Citing Articles

A Scoping Review to Identify Community- and Societal-Level Strategies Evaluated from 2013 to 2023 for Their Potential Impact on Child Well-Being in the United States.

Ports K, Rostad W, Coyne P, Dunning J, Gonzalez A, Troy A Children (Basel). 2024; 11(9).

PMID: 39334603 PMC: 11430804. DOI: 10.3390/children11091070.

Caregiving relationships are a cornerstone of developmental psychopathology.

Humphreys K, Garon-Bissonnette J, Hill K, Bailes L, Barnett W, Hare M Dev Psychopathol. 2024; 36(5):2218-2231.

PMID: 38389283 PMC: 11341779. DOI: 10.1017/S0954579424000300.

Maternal Labor Force Participation During the Child's First Year and Later Separation Anxiety Symptoms.

Garon-Carrier G, Ansari A, Margolis R, Fitzpatrick C Health Educ Behav. 2023; 50(6):792-801.

PMID: 37522632 PMC: 10638856. DOI: 10.1177/10901981231188137.

Paid Family Leave: An Upstream Intervention to Prevent Family Violence.

Bullinger L, Klika B, Feely M, Ford D, Merrick M, Raissian K J Fam Violence. 2023; :1-11.

PMID: 36685754 PMC: 9843119. DOI: 10.1007/s10896-022-00486-3.

Paid maternal leave is associated with infant brain function at 3 months of age.

Brito N, Werchan D, Brandes-Aitken A, Yoshikawa H, Greaves A, Zhang M Child Dev. 2022; 93(4):1030-1043.

PMID: 35373346 PMC: 9892990. DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13765.

References

Richels C, Johnson K, Walden T, Conture E . Socioeconomic status, parental education, vocabulary and language skills of children who stutter. J Commun Disord. 2013; 46(4):361-74. PMC: 3880199. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcomdis.2013.07.002. View

Feldman R, Eidelman A . Triplets across the first 5 years: the discordant infant at birth remains at developmental risk. Pediatrics. 2009; 124(1):316-23. DOI: 10.1542/peds.2008-1510. View

Johnson S, Wolke D, Marlow N . Developmental assessment of preterm infants at 2 years: validity of parent reports. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008; 50(1):58-62. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.02010.x. View

Burchinal M, Roberts J, Nabors L, Bryant D . Quality of center child care and infant cognitive and language development. Child Dev. 1996; 67(2):606-20. View

Byker T . Paid Parental Leave Laws in the United States: Does Short-Duration Leave Affect Women’s Labor-Force Attachment?. Am Econ Rev. 2018; 106(5):242-6. PMC: 6375085. DOI: 10.1257/aer.p20161118. View

Prior M, Smart D, Sanson A, Oberklaid F . Sex differences in psychological adjustment from infancy to 8 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993; 32(2):291-304; discussion 305. DOI: 10.1097/00004583-199303000-00009. View

Briggs-Gowan M, Carter A, Irwin J, Wachtel K, Cicchetti D . The Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment: screening for social-emotional problems and delays in competence. J Pediatr Psychol. 2004; 29(2):143-55. DOI: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsh017. View

Troller-Renfree S, Brito N, Desai P, Leon-Santos A, Wiltshire C, Motton S . Infants of mothers with higher physiological stress show alterations in brain function. Dev Sci. 2020; 23(6):e12976. PMC: 9126078. DOI: 10.1111/desc.12976. View

Bullinger L . The Effect of Paid Family Leave on Infant and Parental Health in the United States. J Health Econ. 2019; 66:101-116. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.05.006. View

10.

Waldfogel J, Han W, Brooks-Gunn J . The effects of early maternal employment on child cognitive development. Demography. 2002; 39(2):369-92. DOI: 10.1353/dem.2002.0021. View

11.

Davis E, Sandman C . The timing of prenatal exposure to maternal cortisol and psychosocial stress is associated with human infant cognitive development. Child Dev. 2010; 81(1):131-48. PMC: 2846100. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01385.x. View

12.

Stearns J . The effects of paid maternity leave: Evidence from Temporary Disability Insurance. J Health Econ. 2015; 43:85-102. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2015.04.005. View

13.

Edwards R, Hans S . Infant risk factors associated with internalizing, externalizing, and co-occurring behavior problems in young children. Dev Psychol. 2015; 51(4):489-99. DOI: 10.1037/a0038800. View

14.

Noble K, Fifer W, Rauh V, Nomura Y, Andrews H . Academic achievement varies with gestational age among children born at term. Pediatrics. 2012; 130(2):e257-64. PMC: 3408682. DOI: 10.1542/peds.2011-2157. View

15.

Fox L, Han W, Ruhm C, Waldfogel J . Time for children: trends in the employment patterns of parents, 1967-2009. Demography. 2012; 50(1):25-49. PMC: 9206509. DOI: 10.1007/s13524-012-0138-4. View

16.

Buehler C, OBrien M . Mothers' part-time employment: associations with mother and family well-being. J Fam Psychol. 2011; 25(6):895-906. PMC: 3237952. DOI: 10.1037/a0025993. View

17.

Schirmer C, Portuguez M, Nunes M . Clinical assessment of language development in children at age 3 years that were born preterm. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2007; 64(4):926-31. DOI: 10.1590/s0004-282x2006000600007. View

18.

Weisleder A, Fernald A . Talking to children matters: early language experience strengthens processing and builds vocabulary. Psychol Sci. 2013; 24(11):2143-52. PMC: 5510534. DOI: 10.1177/0956797613488145. View

19.

Thompson R . Emotion regulation: a theme in search of definition. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 1994; 59(2-3):25-52. View

20.

Abou-Dakn M, Schafer-Graf U, Wockel A . Psychological stress and breast diseases during lactation. Breastfeed Rev. 2010; 17(3):19-26. View