Three-Dimensional Graphene Foams: Synthesis, Properties, Biocompatibility, Biodegradability, and Applications in Tissue Engineering

Presently, clinical nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology have impressively demanded the generation of new organic/inorganic analogues of graphene (as one of the intriguing biomedical research targets) for stem-cell-based tissue engineering. Among different shapes of graphene, three-dimensional (3D) graphene foams (GFs) are highly promising candidates to provide conditions for mimicking in vivo environments, affording effective cell attachment, proliferation,and differentiation due to their unique properties. These include the highest biocompatibility among nanostructures, high surface-to-volume ratio, 3D porous structure (to provide a homogeneous/isotropic growth of tissues), highly favorable mechanical characteristics, and rapid mass and electron transport kinetics (which are required for chemical/physical stimulation of differentiated cells). This review aims to describe recent and rapid advances in the fabrication of 3D GFs, together with their use in tissue engineering and regenerative nanomedicine applications. Moreover, we have summarized a broad range of recent studies about the behaviors, biocompatibility/toxicity,and biodegradability of these materials, both in vitro and in vivo. Finally, the highlights and challenges of these 3D porous structures, compared to the current polymeric scaffold competitors, are discussed.