Canine Brachycephaly: Anatomy, Pathology, Genetics and Welfare

Overview

Journal J Comp Pathol

Publisher Elsevier

Specialties Pathology
Veterinary Medicine

Date 2020 May 4

PMID 32359622

Citations 28

Authors

K J Ekenstedt

K R Crosse

M Risselada

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

Brachycephalic dog breeds have experienced a marked rise in popularity in recent years. While numerous people clearly desire this phenotype in their pets, many of these dogs unfortunately experience several concomitant sequelae, including major problems with respiration and thermoregulation, as well as gastrointestinal, ophthalmological, dermatological, reproductive and even dental problems. This mini review focuses on the anatomical and pathological changes associated with brachycephalic skull shape, including brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome and other co-existent disorders. It then details the known genetic contributors to brachycephaly, and concludes with a brief discourse on the welfare of these animals.

Citing Articles

A Comprehensive Overview of Respiratory Compliance in Dogs Under General Anesthesia: Clinical Factors and Future Perspectives.

Xu T, Mandour A, Shimada K, Hamabe L, Tanaka R Animals (Basel). 2025; 15(5).

PMID: 40076028 PMC: 11899185. DOI: 10.3390/ani15050746.

A review of cerebrospinal fluid circulation with respect to Chiari-like malformation and syringomyelia in brachycephalic dogs.

Jones R, Cirovic S, Rusbridge C Fluids Barriers CNS. 2025; 22(1):25.

PMID: 40065427 PMC: 11895204. DOI: 10.1186/s12987-025-00636-x.

Short-term effects of brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome surgery on fitness and exercise in brachycephalic dogs.

Goossens J, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Zablotski Y, Schroers M Front Vet Sci. 2025; 12:1481717.

PMID: 40041668 PMC: 11876419. DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2025.1481717.

The Prevalence of Corneal Disorders in Pugs Attending Primary Care Veterinary Practices in Australia.

Lau W, Taylor R Animals (Basel). 2025; 15(4).

PMID: 40003013 PMC: 11851709. DOI: 10.3390/ani15040531.

Pet Dog Choice in Hong Kong and Mainland China: Exploring Owners' Motivations, Behaviours, and Perceptions.

Yim H, Flay K, Nekouei O, Steagall P, Beatty J Animals (Basel). 2025; 15(4).

PMID: 40002968 PMC: 11851363. DOI: 10.3390/ani15040486.

References

Jones B, Stanley B, Nelson N . The impact of tongue dimension on air volume in brachycephalic dogs. Vet Surg. 2019; 49(3):512-520. DOI: 10.1111/vsu.13302. View

Mansour T, Lucot K, Konopelski S, Dickinson P, Sturges B, Vernau K . Whole genome variant association across 100 dogs identifies a frame shift mutation in DISHEVELLED 2 which contributes to Robinow-like syndrome in Bulldogs and related screw tail dog breeds. PLoS Genet. 2018; 14(12):e1007850. PMC: 6303079. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007850. View

Regalado Ibarra A, Legendre L . Anatomy of the Brachycephalic Canine Hard Palate and Treatment of Acquired Palatitis Using CO Laser. J Vet Dent. 2020; 36(3):186-197. DOI: 10.1177/0898756419893127. View

Pichetto M, Arrighi S, Roccabianca P, Romussi S . The anatomy of the dog soft palate. II. Histological evaluation of the caudal soft palate in brachycephalic breeds with grade I brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2011; 294(7):1267-72. DOI: 10.1002/ar.21417. View

Pichetto M, Arrighi S, Gobbetti M, Romussi S . The anatomy of the dog soft palate. III. Histological evaluation of the caudal soft palate in brachycephalic neonates. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2014; 298(3):618-23. DOI: 10.1002/ar.23054. View

Marchant T, Johnson E, McTeir L, Johnson C, Gow A, Liuti T . Canine Brachycephaly Is Associated with a Retrotransposon-Mediated Missplicing of SMOC2. Curr Biol. 2017; 27(11):1573-1584.e6. PMC: 5462623. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.057. View

Ladlow J, Liu N, Kalmar L, Sargan D . Brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome. Vet Rec. 2018; 182(13):375-378. DOI: 10.1136/vr.k1403. View

Dupre G, Heidenreich D . Brachycephalic Syndrome. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2016; 46(4):691-707. DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2016.02.002. View

Arrighi S, Pichetto M, Roccabianca P, Romussi S . The anatomy of the dog soft palate. I. Histological evaluation of the caudal soft palate in mesaticephalic breeds. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2011; 294(7):1261-6. DOI: 10.1002/ar.21418. View

10.

Crosse K, Bray J, Orbell G, Preston C . Histological evaluation of the soft palate in dogs affected by brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome. N Z Vet J. 2015; 63(6):319-25. DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2015.1061464. View

11.

Packer R, Tivers M . Strategies for the management and prevention of conformation-related respiratory disorders in brachycephalic dogs. Vet Med (Auckl). 2018; 6:219-232. PMC: 6067768. DOI: 10.2147/VMRR.S60475. View

12.

Marchant T, Dietschi E, Rytz U, Schawalder P, Jagannathan V, Rasouliha S . An ADAMTS3 missense variant is associated with Norwich Terrier upper airway syndrome. PLoS Genet. 2019; 15(5):e1008102. PMC: 6521993. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008102. View

13.

Packer R, ONeill D, Fletcher F, Farnworth M . Great expectations, inconvenient truths, and the paradoxes of the dog-owner relationship for owners of brachycephalic dogs. PLoS One. 2019; 14(7):e0219918. PMC: 6641206. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219918. View

14.

SCHMIDT-NIELSEN K, Bretz W, Taylor C . Panting in dogs: unidirectional air flow over evaporative surfaces. Science. 1970; 169(3950):1102-4. DOI: 10.1126/science.169.3950.1102. View

15.

Schoenebeck J, Hutchinson S, Byers A, Beale H, Carrington B, Faden D . Variation of BMP3 contributes to dog breed skull diversity. PLoS Genet. 2012; 8(8):e1002849. PMC: 3410846. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002849. View