Serious Life Events and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in the Norwegian Population

Overview

Journal BJPsych Open

Publisher Cambridge University Press

Specialty Psychiatry

Date 2019 Sep 12

PMID 31506124

Citations 29

Authors

Trond Heir

Tore Bonsaksen

Tine Grimholt

Oivind Ekeberg

Laila Skogstad

Anners Lerdal

Inger Schou-Bredal

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

Background: It has been suggested that countries with more resources and better healthcare have populations with a higher risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Norway is a high-income country with good public healthcare.

Aims: To examine lifetime trauma exposure and the point prevalence of PTSD in the general Norwegian population.

Method: A survey was administered to a national probability sample of 5500 adults (aged ≥18 years). Of 4961 eligible individuals, 1792 responded (36%). Responders and non-responders did not differ significantly in age, gender or urban versus rural residence. Trauma exposure was measured using the Life Events Checklist for the DSM-5. PTSD was measured with the PTSD Checklist for the DSM-5. We used the DSM-5 diagnostic guidelines to categorise participants as fulfilling the PTSD symptom criteria or not.

Results: At least one serious lifetime event was reported by 85% of men and 86% of women. The most common event categories were transportation accident and life-threatening illness or injury. The point prevalence of PTSD was 3.8% for men and 8.5% for women. The most common events causing PTSD were sexual and physical assaults, life-threatening illness or injury, and sudden violent deaths. Risk of PTSD increased proportionally with the number of event categories experienced.

Conclusions: High estimates of serious life events and correspondingly high rates of PTSD in the Norwegian population support the paradox that countries with more resources and better healthcare have higher risk of PTSD. Possible explanations are high expectations for a risk-free life and high attention to potential harmful mental health effects of serious life events.

Declaration Of Interest: None.

Citing Articles

The Norwegian traumatic grief inventory-self report plus (TGI-SR+): a psychometric evaluation in traumatically bereaved people.

Lenferink L, Johnsen I, Kristensen P, Lie N, Sveen J Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2024; 15(1):2391248.

PMID: 39162069 PMC: 11338194. DOI: 10.1080/20008066.2024.2391248.

Experiences of trauma and psychometric properties of the Life Events Checklist among adults in Uganda.

Morawej Z, Misra S, Ametaj A, Stevenson A, Kyebuzibwa J, Gelaye B PLoS One. 2024; 19(4):e0298385.

PMID: 38687810 PMC: 11060541. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0298385.

Childhood adversity and psychopathology: the dimensions of timing, type and chronicity in a population-based sample of high-risk adolescents.

Zarchev M, Grootendorst-van Mil N, Bouter D, Hoogendijk W, Mulder C, Kamperman A Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2024; 18(1):37.

PMID: 38500125 PMC: 10949567. DOI: 10.1186/s13034-024-00727-x.

The Impact of Maternal Interpersonal Violent Trauma and Related Psychopathology on Child Outcomes and Intergenerational Transmission.

Graf S, Schechter D Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2024; 26(4):166-175.

PMID: 38427205 PMC: 10978628. DOI: 10.1007/s11920-024-01491-7.

Prevalence of suicide attempt and associations with deliberate self-harm, mental health problems, drug misuse and traumatic experiences - a cross sectional survey of the Norwegian population.

Grimholt T, Bonsaksen T, Heir T, Schou Bredal I, Skogstad L, Ekeberg O BMC Psychiatry. 2024; 24(1):164.

PMID: 38408936 PMC: 10895832. DOI: 10.1186/s12888-024-05610-9.

References

Ehlers A, Clark D . A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2000; 38(4):319-45. DOI: 10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00123-0. View

Rose G . Sick individuals and sick populations. Int J Epidemiol. 2001; 30(3):427-32; discussion 433-4. DOI: 10.1093/ije/30.3.427. View

Gray M, Litz B, Hsu J, Lombardo T . Psychometric properties of the life events checklist. Assessment. 2004; 11(4):330-41. DOI: 10.1177/1073191104269954. View

Frans O, Rimmo P, Aberg L, Fredrikson M . Trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2005; 111(4):291-9. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00463.x. View

Kessler R, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas K, Walters E . Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005; 62(6):593-602. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593. View

van Giezen A, Arensman E, Spinhoven P, Wolters G . Consistency of memory for emotionally arousing events: a review of prospective and experimental studies. Clin Psychol Rev. 2005; 25(7):935-53. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2005.04.011. View

Karam E, Mneimneh Z, Dimassi H, Fayyad J, Karam A, Nasser S . Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in Lebanon: first onset, treatment, and exposure to war. PLoS Med. 2008; 5(4):e61. PMC: 2276523. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050061. View

Van Ameringen M, Mancini C, Patterson B, Boyle M . Post-traumatic stress disorder in Canada. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2008; 14(3):171-81. PMC: 6494052. DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00049.x. View

Rubin D, Berntsen D, Bohni M . A memory-based model of posttraumatic stress disorder: evaluating basic assumptions underlying the PTSD diagnosis. Psychol Rev. 2008; 115(4):985-1011. PMC: 2762652. DOI: 10.1037/a0013397. View

10.

Giosan C, Malta L, Jayasinghe N, Spielman L, Difede J . Relationships between memory inconsistency for traumatic events following 9/11 and PTSD in disaster restoration workers. J Anxiety Disord. 2009; 23(4):557-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.11.004. View

11.

Heir T, Piatigorsky A, Weisaeth L . Longitudinal changes in recalled perceived life threat after a natural disaster. Br J Psychiatry. 2009; 194(6):510-4. DOI: 10.1192/bjp.bp.108.056580. View

12.

Hussain A, Weisaeth L, Heir T . Nonresponse to a population-based postdisaster postal questionnaire study. J Trauma Stress. 2009; 22(4):324-8. DOI: 10.1002/jts.20431. View

13.

Vries G, Olff M . The lifetime prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in the Netherlands. J Trauma Stress. 2009; 22(4):259-67. DOI: 10.1002/jts.20429. View

14.

Streiner D, Patten S, Anthony J, Cairney J . Has 'lifetime prevalence' reached the end of its life? An examination of the concept. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2010; 18(4):221-8. PMC: 4906789. DOI: 10.1002/mpr.296. View

15.

Richardson L, Frueh B, Acierno R . Prevalence estimates of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: critical review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2010; 44(1):4-19. PMC: 2891773. DOI: 10.3109/00048670903393597. View

16.

Hussain A, Weisaeth L, Heir T . Psychiatric disorders and functional impairment among disaster victims after exposure to a natural disaster: a population based study. J Affect Disord. 2010; 128(1-2):135-41. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2010.06.018. View

17.

Chapman C, Mills K, Slade T, McFarlane A, Bryant R, Creamer M . Remission from post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population. Psychol Med. 2011; 42(8):1695-703. DOI: 10.1017/S0033291711002856. View

18.

Hem C, Hussain A, Wentzel-Larsen T, Heir T . The Norwegian version of the PTSD Checklist (PCL): construct validity in a community sample of 2004 tsunami survivors. Nord J Psychiatry. 2012; 66(5):355-9. DOI: 10.3109/08039488.2012.655308. View

19.

Amstadter A, Aggen S, Knudsen G, Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Kendler K . Potentially traumatic event exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and Axis I and II comorbidity in a population-based study of Norwegian young adults. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2012; 48(2):215-23. PMC: 3898694. DOI: 10.1007/s00127-012-0537-2. View

20.

Morina N, Wicherts J, Lobbrecht J, Priebe S . Remission from post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of long term outcome studies. Clin Psychol Rev. 2014; 34(3):249-55. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2014.03.002. View