Herbal Highs: Review on Psychoactive Effects and Neuropharmacology

Overview

Journal Curr Neuropharmacol

Publisher Bentham Science Publishers

Date 2016 Nov 2

PMID 27799032

Citations 11

Authors

Silvia Graziano

Laura Orsolini

Maria Concetta Rotolo

Roberta Tittarelli

Fabrizio Schifano

Simona Pichini

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

Background: A new trend among users of new psychoactive substances' the consumption of "herbal highs": plant parts containing psychoactive substances. Most of the substances extracted from herbs, in old centuries were at the centre of religious ceremonies of ancient civilizations. Currently, these herbal products are mainly sold by internet web sites and easily obtained since some of them have no legal restriction.

Objective: We reviewed psychoactive effects and neuropharmacology of the most used "herbal highs" with characterized active principles, with studies reporting mechanisms of action, pharmacological and subjective effects, eventual secondary effects including intoxications and/or fatalities Method: The PubMed database was searched using the following key.words: herbal highs, Argyreia nervosa, Ipomoea violacea and Rivea corymbosa; Catha edulis; Datura stramonium; Piper methysticum; Mitragyna speciosa.

Results: Psychoactive plants here reviewed have been known and used from ancient times, even if for some of them limited information still exist regarding subjective and neuropharmacological effects and consequent eventual toxicity when plants are used alone or in combination with "classical" drugs of abuse.

Conclusion: Some "herbal highs" should be classified as harmful drugs since chronic administration has been linked with addiction and cognitive impairment; for some others taking into consideration only the recent trends of abuse, studies investigating these aspects are lacking.

Citing Articles

Unveiling the Complexities of Medications, Substance Abuse, and Plants for Recreational and Narcotic Purposes: An In-Depth Analysis.

Predescu I, Jijie A, Patrascu D, Pasc A, Piros E, Trandafirescu C Pharmacy (Basel). 2025; 13(1).

PMID: 39998006 PMC: 11859396. DOI: 10.3390/pharmacy13010007.

Genomic and cytogenetic analyses reveal satellite repeat signature in allotetraploid okra (Abelmoschus esculentus).

Liu J, Lin X, Wang X, Feng L, Zhu S, Tian R BMC Plant Biol. 2024; 24(1):71.

PMID: 38267860 PMC: 10809672. DOI: 10.1186/s12870-024-04739-9.

An Overview on the Hallucinogenic Peyote and Its Alkaloid Mescaline: The Importance of Context, Ceremony and Culture.

Doesburg-van Kleffens M, Zimmermann-Klemd A, Grundemann C Molecules. 2023; 28(24).

PMID: 38138432 PMC: 10746114. DOI: 10.3390/molecules28247942.

The genome of okra () provides insights into its genome evolution and high nutrient content.

Wang R, Li W, He Q, Zhang H, Wang M, Zheng X Hortic Res. 2023; 10(8):uhad120.

PMID: 37554345 PMC: 10405168. DOI: 10.1093/hr/uhad120.

Chemical Composition, Pharmacological, and Toxicological Effects of Betel Nut.

Chen X, He Y, Deng Y Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2021; 2021:1808081.

PMID: 34457017 PMC: 8387188. DOI: 10.1155/2021/1808081.

References

Ponglux D, Wongseripipatana S, Takayama H, Kikuchi M, Kurihara M, Kitajima M . A New Indole Alkaloid, 7 alpha-Hydroxy-7H-mitragynine, from Mitragyna speciosa in Thailand. Planta Med. 1994; 60(6):580-1. DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-959578. View

Gaire B, Subedi L . A review on the pharmacological and toxicological aspects of Datura stramonium L. J Integr Med. 2013; 11(2):73-9. DOI: 10.3736/jintegrmed2013016. View

Jacobsen E . The clinical pharmacology of the hallucinogens. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1963; 4:480-503. DOI: 10.1002/cpt196344480. View

Warner M, Kaufman N, Grundmann O . The pharmacology and toxicology of kratom: from traditional herb to drug of abuse. Int J Legal Med. 2015; 130(1):127-38. DOI: 10.1007/s00414-015-1279-y. View

Riba J, Rodriguez-Fornells A, Urbano G, Morte A, Antonijoan R, Montero M . Subjective effects and tolerability of the South American psychoactive beverage Ayahuasca in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2001; 154(1):85-95. DOI: 10.1007/s002130000606. View

Ernst E . The risk-benefit profile of commonly used herbal therapies: Ginkgo, St. John's Wort, Ginseng, Echinacea, Saw Palmetto, and Kava. Ann Intern Med. 2002; 136(1):42-53. DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-136-1-200201010-00010. View

Maas U, Strubelt S . Fatalities after taking ibogaine in addiction treatment could be related to sudden cardiac death caused by autonomic dysfunction. Med Hypotheses. 2006; 67(4):960-4. DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.02.050. View

Ketola R, Viinamaki J, Rasanen I, Pelander A, Goebeler S . Fatal kavalactone intoxication by suicidal intravenous injection. Forensic Sci Int. 2015; 249:e7-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.01.032. View

Alper K, Stajic M, Gill J . Fatalities temporally associated with the ingestion of ibogaine. J Forensic Sci. 2012; 57(2):398-412. DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.02008.x. View

10.

Pantano F, Tittarelli R, Mannocchi G, Zaami S, Ricci S, Giorgetti R . Hepatotoxicity Induced by "the 3Ks": Kava, Kratom and Khat. Int J Mol Sci. 2016; 17(4):580. PMC: 4849036. DOI: 10.3390/ijms17040580. View

11.

Swogger M, Hart E, Erowid F, Erowid E, Trabold N, Yee K . Experiences of Kratom Users: A Qualitative Analysis. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2015; 47(5):360-7. DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2015.1096434. View

12.

Al-Hebshi N, Skaug N . Khat (Catha edulis)-an updated review. Addict Biol. 2005; 10(4):299-307. DOI: 10.1080/13556210500353020. View

13.

Parissis D, Mellidis C, Boutis A, Apostolidis K, Ignatiadis M, Kiosses V . Neurological findings in a case of coma secondary to Datura stramonium poisoning. Eur J Neurol. 2003; 10(6):745-6. DOI: 10.1046/j.1468-1331.2003.00614.x. View

14.

Bulling S, Schicker K, Zhang Y, Steinkellner T, Stockner T, Gruber C . The mechanistic basis for noncompetitive ibogaine inhibition of serotonin and dopamine transporters. J Biol Chem. 2012; 287(22):18524-34. PMC: 3365767. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M112.343681. View

15.

Dominguez-Clave E, Soler J, Elices M, Pascual J, Alvarez E, de la Fuente Revenga M . Ayahuasca: Pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potential. Brain Res Bull. 2016; 126(Pt 1):89-101. DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.002. View

16.

Ellison G . Neural degeneration following chronic stimulant abuse reveals a weak link in brain, fasciculus retroflexus, implying the loss of forebrain control circuitry. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002; 12(4):287-97. DOI: 10.1016/s0924-977x(02)00020-2. View

17.

Toennes S, Kauert G . Driving under the influence of khat--alkaloid concentrations and observations in forensic cases. Forensic Sci Int. 2004; 140(1):85-90. DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2003.11.028. View

18.

Singh Y . Kava: an overview. J Ethnopharmacol. 1992; 37(1):13-45. DOI: 10.1016/0378-8741(92)90003-a. View

19.

Bunzow J, Sonders M, Arttamangkul S, Harrison L, Zhang G, Quigley D . Amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, lysergic acid diethylamide, and metabolites of the catecholamine neurotransmitters are agonists of a rat trace amine receptor. Mol Pharmacol. 2001; 60(6):1181-8. DOI: 10.1124/mol.60.6.1181. View

20.

Larson B, Harmon D, Piper E, Griffis L, Bush L . Alkaloid binding and activation of D2 dopamine receptors in cell culture. J Anim Sci. 1999; 77(4):942-7. DOI: 10.2527/1999.774942x. View