Staphylococcus Aureus Infections: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Management

Overview

Journal Clin Microbiol Rev

Publisher American Society for Microbiology

Specialty Microbiology

Date 2015 May 29

PMID 26016486

Citations 1841

Authors

Steven Y C Tong

Joshua S Davis

Emily Eichenberger

Thomas L Holland

Vance G Fowler Jr

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen that causes a wide range of clinical infections. It is a leading cause of bacteremia and infective endocarditis as well as osteoarticular, skin and soft tissue, pleuropulmonary, and device-related infections. This review comprehensively covers the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management of each of these clinical entities. The past 2 decades have witnessed two clear shifts in the epidemiology of S. aureus infections: first, a growing number of health care-associated infections, particularly seen in infective endocarditis and prosthetic device infections, and second, an epidemic of community-associated skin and soft tissue infections driven by strains with certain virulence factors and resistance to β-lactam antibiotics. In reviewing the literature to support management strategies for these clinical manifestations, we also highlight the paucity of high-quality evidence for many key clinical questions.

Citing Articles

Staphylococcus borealis causing subclinical mastitis in dromedary camels.

Ranjan R, Kuniyal A, Ranjan A, Singh M, Jyotsana B, Sawal R Trop Anim Health Prod. 2025; 57(2):117.

PMID: 40085299 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-025-04372-0.

Mechanisms of Overexpression and Membrane Potential Reduction Leading to Ciprofloxacin Heteroresistance in a Isolate.

Li M, Jian Q, Ye X, Jing M, Wu J, Wu Z Int J Mol Sci. 2025; 26(5).

PMID: 40076991 PMC: 11901101. DOI: 10.3390/ijms26052372.

Nitroreductase-activatable photosensitizers for selective antimicrobial photodynamic therapy.

Tung M, Ma T, Lopez-Miranda I, Milstein J, Beharry A RSC Med Chem. 2025; .

PMID: 40060997 PMC: 11883423. DOI: 10.1039/d4md00890a.

Antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities of Derazantinib (ARQ-087) against Staphylococcus aureus.

Wang W, Zhong Q, Huang X Arch Microbiol. 2025; 207(4):78.

PMID: 40047947 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-025-04288-1.

Early fibrin biofilm development in cardiovascular infections.

Oukrich S, Hong J, Leon-Grooters M, van Cappellen W, Slotman J, Koenderink G Biofilm. 2025; 9:100261.

PMID: 40034339 PMC: 11872660. DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2025.100261.

References

Kaandorp C, Dinant H, van de Laar M, Moens H, Prins A, Dijkmans B . Incidence and sources of native and prosthetic joint infection: a community based prospective survey. Ann Rheum Dis. 1997; 56(8):470-5. PMC: 1752430. DOI: 10.1136/ard.56.8.470. View

Osterholm M, Forfang J . Toxic-shock syndrome in Minnesota: results of an active-passive surveillance system. J Infect Dis. 1982; 145(4):458-64. DOI: 10.1093/infdis/145.4.458. View

Tarakji K, Chan E, Cantillon D, Doonan A, Hu T, Schmitt S . Cardiac implantable electronic device infections: presentation, management, and patient outcomes. Heart Rhythm. 2010; 7(8):1043-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.hrthm.2010.05.016. View

Schweizer M, Furuno J, Harris A, Johnson J, Shardell M, McGregor J . Comparative effectiveness of nafcillin or cefazolin versus vancomycin in methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. BMC Infect Dis. 2011; 11:279. PMC: 3206863. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-11-279. View

Uckay I, Tovmirzaeva L, Garbino J, Rohner P, Tahintzi P, Suva D . Short parenteral antibiotic treatment for adult septic arthritis after successful drainage. Int J Infect Dis. 2012; 17(3):e199-205. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2011.12.019. View

Rankine J, Barron D, Robinson P, Millner P, Dickson R . Therapeutic impact of percutaneous spinal biopsy in spinal infection. Postgrad Med J. 2004; 80(948):607-9. PMC: 1743113. DOI: 10.1136/pgmj.2003.017863. View

Nadji G, Remadi J, Coviaux F, Mirode A, Brahim A, Enriquez-Sarano M . Comparison of clinical and morphological characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis with endocarditis caused by other pathogens. Heart. 2005; 91(7):932-7. PMC: 1768988. DOI: 10.1136/hrt.2004.042648. View

Margaretten M, Kohlwes J, Moore D, Bent S . Does this adult patient have septic arthritis?. JAMA. 2007; 297(13):1478-88. DOI: 10.1001/jama.297.13.1478. View

Salgado-Pabon W, Breshears L, Spaulding A, Merriman J, Stach C, Horswill A . Superantigens are critical for Staphylococcus aureus Infective endocarditis, sepsis, and acute kidney injury. mBio. 2013; 4(4). PMC: 3747586. DOI: 10.1128/mBio.00494-13. View

10.

Shorr A, Kunkel M, Kollef M . Linezolid versus vancomycin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: pooled analysis of randomized studies. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005; 56(5):923-9. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dki355. View

11.

Nickerson E, Wuthiekanun V, Wongsuvan G, Limmathurosakul D, Srisamang P, Mahavanakul W . Factors predicting and reducing mortality in patients with invasive Staphylococcus aureus disease in a developing country. PLoS One. 2009; 4(8):e6512. PMC: 2714962. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006512. View

12.

Chen A, Goldstein M, Carroll K, Song X, Perl T, Siberry G . Evolving epidemiology of pediatric Staphylococcus aureus cutaneous infections in a Baltimore hospital. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2006; 22(10):717-23. DOI: 10.1097/01.pec.0000236832.23947.a0. View

13.

Nakamura T, Daimon T, Mouri N, Masuda H, Sawa Y . Staphylococcus aureus and repeat bacteremia in febrile patients as early signs of sternal wound infection after cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2014; 9:80. PMC: 4046056. DOI: 10.1186/1749-8090-9-80. View

14.

Crowley A, Peterson G, Benjamin Jr D, Rimmer S, Todd C, Cabell C . Venous thrombosis in patients with short- and long-term central venous catheter-associated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Crit Care Med. 2007; 36(2):385-90. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0B013E3181611F914. View

15.

Pedersen M, Benfield T, Skinhoej P, Jensen A . Haematogenous Staphylococcus aureus meningitis. A 10-year nationwide study of 96 consecutive cases. BMC Infect Dis. 2006; 6:49. PMC: 1421412. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-6-49. View

16.

Rubinstein E, Cammarata S, Oliphant T, Wunderink R . Linezolid (PNU-100766) versus vancomycin in the treatment of hospitalized patients with nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis. 2001; 32(3):402-12. DOI: 10.1086/318486. View

17.

Kobayashi S, Malachowa N, Whitney A, Braughton K, Gardner D, Long D . Comparative analysis of USA300 virulence determinants in a rabbit model of skin and soft tissue infection. J Infect Dis. 2011; 204(6):937-41. PMC: 3156927. DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jir441. View

18.

Peltola H, Paakkonen M . Acute osteomyelitis in children. N Engl J Med. 2014; 370(4):352-60. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1213956. View

19.

Berbari E, Hanssen A, Duffy M, Steckelberg J, Ilstrup D, Harmsen W . Risk factors for prosthetic joint infection: case-control study. Clin Infect Dis. 1998; 27(5):1247-54. DOI: 10.1086/514991. View

20.

Liu C, Graber C, Karr M, Diep B, Basuino L, Schwartz B . A population-based study of the incidence and molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus disease in San Francisco, 2004-2005. Clin Infect Dis. 2008; 46(11):1637-46. DOI: 10.1086/587893. View