Urinary Perchlorate and Thyroid Hormone Levels in Adolescent and Adult Men and Women Living in the United States

Overview

Journal Environ Health Perspect

Date 2006 Dec 23

PMID 17185277

Citations 90

Authors

Benjamin C Blount

James L Pirkle

John D Osterloh

Liza Valentin-Blasini

Kathleen L Caldwell

Affiliations

Soon will be listed here.

Abstract

Background: Perchlorate is commonly found in the environment and known to inhibit thyroid function at high doses. Assessing the potential effect of low-level exposure to perchlorate on thyroid function is an area of ongoing research.

Objectives: We evaluated the potential relationship between urinary levels of perchlorate and serum levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and total thyroxine (T4) in 2,299 men and women, > or = 12 years of age, participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) during 2001-2002.

Methods: We used multiple regression models of T4 and TSH that included perchlorate and covariates known to be or likely to be associated with T4 or TSH levels: age, race/ethnicity, body mass index, estrogen use, menopausal status, pregnancy status, premenarche status, serum C-reactive protein, serum albumin, serum cotinine, hours of fasting, urinary thiocyanate, urinary nitrate, and selected medication groups.

Results: Perchlorate was not a significant predictor of T4 or TSH levels in men. For women overall, perchlorate was a significant predictor of both T4 and TSH. For women with urinary iodine < 100 microg/L, perchlorate was a significant negative predictor of T4 (p < 0.0001) and a positive predictor of TSH (p = 0.001). For women with urinary iodine > or = 100 microg/L, perchlorate was a significant positive predictor of TSH (p = 0.025) but not T4 (p = 0.550).

Conclusions: These associations of perchlorate with T4 and TSH are coherent in direction and independent of other variables known to affect thyroid function, but are present at perchlorate exposure levels that were unanticipated based on previous studies.

Citing Articles

Associations of urinary caffeine metabolites with sex hormones: comparison of three statistical models.

Zhou J, Qin L Front Nutr. 2025; 11():1497483.

PMID: 39839288 PMC: 11747151. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2024.1497483.

Negative association between the neutrophil percentage-to-albumin ratio (NPAR) and psoriasis: a retrospective cross-sectional study.

Zhang J, Li D, Guo H, Yang J, Zhang H, Wu J Arch Dermatol Res. 2025; 317(1):190.

PMID: 39775062 DOI: 10.1007/s00403-024-03695-6.

Association between exposure to urinary metal and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in US adults.

Cheng T, Yu D, Li G, Chen X, Zhou L, Wen Z PLoS One. 2024; 19(12):e0316045.

PMID: 39729492 PMC: 11676533. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0316045.

The Association Between Life's Essential 8 and Psoriasis in American Adults: A Cross-Sectional NHANES Study.

Zhang W, Yuan Z, Wang Y, Jin Z, Luo Z, Wang X Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol. 2024; 17:2555-2563.

PMID: 39552611 PMC: 11568770. DOI: 10.2147/CCID.S476594.

The associations between exposure to mixed environmental endocrine disruptors and sex steroid hormones in men: a comparison of different statistical models.

Zhao S, Dong J, Luo Z Sci Rep. 2024; 14(1):26375.

PMID: 39487146 PMC: 11530574. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-76972-z.

References

Pearce E, Bogazzi F, Martino E, Brogioni S, Pardini E, Pellegrini G . The prevalence of elevated serum C-reactive protein levels in inflammatory and noninflammatory thyroid disease. Thyroid. 2003; 13(7):643-8. DOI: 10.1089/105072503322239989. View

Belin R, Astor B, Powe N, Ladenson P . Smoke exposure is associated with a lower prevalence of serum thyroid autoantibodies and thyrotropin concentration elevation and a higher prevalence of mild thyrotropin concentration suppression in the third National Health and Nutrition Examination.... J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004; 89(12):6077-86. DOI: 10.1210/jc.2004-0431. View

Kirk A, Martinelango P, Tian K, Dutta A, Smith E, Dasgupta P . Perchlorate and iodide in dairy and breast milk. Environ Sci Technol. 2005; 39(7):2011-7. DOI: 10.1021/es048118t. View

Nyrnes A, Jorde R, Sundsfjord J . Serum TSH is positively associated with BMI. Int J Obes (Lond). 2005; 30(1):100-5. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803112. View

DANFORTH Jr E, Horton E, OConnell M, SIMS E, Burger A, Ingbar S . Dietary-induced alterations in thyroid hormone metabolism during overnutrition. J Clin Invest. 1979; 64(5):1336-47. PMC: 371281. DOI: 10.1172/JCI109590. View

Jublanc C, Bruckert E, Giral P, Chapman M, Leenhardt L, Carreau V . Relationship of circulating C-reactive protein levels to thyroid status and cardiovascular risk in hyperlipidemic euthyroid subjects: low free thyroxine is associated with elevated hsCRP. Atherosclerosis. 2004; 172(1):7-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2003.09.009. View

Tonacchera M, Pinchera A, Dimida A, Ferrarini E, Agretti P, Vitti P . Relative potencies and additivity of perchlorate, thiocyanate, nitrate, and iodide on the inhibition of radioactive iodide uptake by the human sodium iodide symporter. Thyroid. 2005; 14(12):1012-9. DOI: 10.1089/thy.2004.14.1012. View

Urbansky E, Brown S, Magnuson M, Kelty C . Perchlorate levels in samples of sodium nitrate fertilizer derived from Chilean caliche. Environ Pollut. 2001; 112(3):299-302. DOI: 10.1016/s0269-7491(00)00132-9. View

Snyder S, Pleus R, Vanderford B, Holady J . Perchlorate and chlorate in dietary supplements and flavor enhancing ingredients. Anal Chim Acta. 2007; 567(1):26-32. DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.03.029. View

10.

Klein R, Sargent J, Larsen P, Waisbren S, Haddow J, Mitchell M . Relation of severity of maternal hypothyroidism to cognitive development of offspring. J Med Screen. 2001; 8(1):18-20. DOI: 10.1136/jms.8.1.18. View

11.

Glinoer D . The regulation of thyroid function in pregnancy: pathways of endocrine adaptation from physiology to pathology. Endocr Rev. 1997; 18(3):404-33. DOI: 10.1210/edrv.18.3.0300. View

12.

Tuzcu A, Bahceci M, Gokalp D, Tuzun Y, Gunes K . Subclinical hypothyroidism may be associated with elevated high-sensitive c-reactive protein (low grade inflammation) and fasting hyperinsulinemia. Endocr J. 2005; 52(1):89-94. DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.52.89. View

13.

Loucks A, Heath E . Induction of low-T3 syndrome in exercising women occurs at a threshold of energy availability. Am J Physiol. 1994; 266(3 Pt 2):R817-23. DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.1994.266.3.R817. View

14.

Lamm S, Braverman L, Li F, Richman K, Pino S, Howearth G . Thyroid health status of ammonium perchlorate workers: a cross-sectional occupational health study. J Occup Environ Med. 1999; 41(4):248-60. DOI: 10.1097/00043764-199904000-00006. View

15.

Caldwell K, Jones R, Hollowell J . Urinary iodine concentration: United States National Health And Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2002. Thyroid. 2005; 15(7):692-9. DOI: 10.1089/thy.2005.15.692. View

16.

Canaris G, Manowitz N, Mayor G, Ridgway E . The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160(4):526-34. DOI: 10.1001/archinte.160.4.526. View

17.

Loucks A, Laughlin G, Mortola J, Girton L, Nelson J, Yen S . Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroidal function in eumenorrheic and amenorrheic athletes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992; 75(2):514-8. DOI: 10.1210/jcem.75.2.1639953. View

18.

Hollowell J, Staehling N, Flanders W, Hannon W, Gunter E, Spencer C . Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002; 87(2):489-99. DOI: 10.1210/jcem.87.2.8182. View

19.

Westgard J, Barry P, Hunt M, Groth T . A multi-rule Shewhart chart for quality control in clinical chemistry. Clin Chem. 1981; 27(3):493-501. View

20.

Laurberg P, Nohr S, Pedersen K, Hreidarsson A, Andersen S, Bulow Pedersen I . Thyroid disorders in mild iodine deficiency. Thyroid. 2000; 10(11):951-63. DOI: 10.1089/thy.2000.10.951. View