Staphylococcal Exotoxin Superantigens Induce Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Expression in Naturally Infected CD4+ T Cells

A high proportion of Staphylococcus aureus strains of human origin produce one or more exotoxins. In vivo, these toxins may give rise to a variety of clinical syndromes. In vitro, staphylococcal exotoxins have been shown to bind both to human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells and to the T-cell receptors on large fractions of T cells. The result of this interaction may be proliferation of the T cells, T-cell anergy, or apoptosis, depending on several factors, including the state of the responding cells and the presence of accessory molecules. Using naturally infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells depleted of CD8+ T cells, we have shown that staphylococcal exotoxins are powerful inducers of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 expression and that they induce expression at low concentrations and with greater efficiency than other T-cell mitogens. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 was produced entirely by CD4+ T cells in this model; monocytes were expendable both as a source of virus and as a source of HLA class II molecules as long as other cells expressing HLA class II molecules were present. The results suggest that infection by S. aureus may be a cofactor in the immunopathogenesis of AIDS.